CD36(+) cancer-associated fibroblasts provide immunosuppressive microenvironment for hepatocellular carcinoma via secretion of macrophage migration inhibitory factor

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an immunotherapy-resistant malignancy characterized by high cellular heterogeneity. The diversity of cell types and the interplay between tumor and non-tumor cells remain to be clarified. Single cell RNA sequencing of human and mouse HCC tumors revealed heterogeneity of cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF). Cross-species analysis determined the prominent CD36(+) CAFs exhibited high-level lipid metabolism and expression of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF). Lineage-tracing assays showed CD36(+)CAFs were derived from hepatic stellate cells. Furthermore, CD36 mediated oxidized LDL uptake-dependent MIF expression via lipid peroxidation/p38/CEBPs axis in CD36(+) CAFs, which recruited CD33(+)myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in MIF- and CD74-dependent manner. Co-implantation of CD36(+) CAFs with HCC cells promotes HCC progression in vivo. Finally, CD36 inhibitor synergizes with anti-PD-1 immunotherapy by restoring antitumor T-cell responses in HCC. Our work underscores the importance of elucidating the function of specific CAF subset in understanding the interplay between the tumor microenvironment and immune system.