Growth and characterization of thorium-doped calcium fluoride single crystals

We have grown [Formula: see text] Th:CaF[Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] Th:CaF[Formula: see text] single crystals for investigations on the VUV laser-accessible first nuclear excited state of [Formula: see text] Th, with the aim of building a solid-state nuclear clock. To reach high doping concentrations despite the extreme scarcity (and radioactivity) of [Formula: see text] Th, we have scaled down the crystal volume by a factor 100 compared to established commercial or scientific growth processes. We use the vertical gradient freeze method on 3.2 mm diameter seed single crystals with a 2 mm drilled pocket, filled with a co-precipitated CaF[Formula: see text] :ThF[Formula: see text] :PbF[Formula: see text] powder in order to grow single crystals. Concentrations of [Formula: see text] cm[Formula: see text] have been realized with [Formula: see text] Th with good (> 10%) VUV transmission. However, the intrinsic radioactivity of [Formula: see text] Th drives radio-induced dissociation during growth and radiation damage after solidification. Both lead to a degradation of VUV transmission, currently limiting the [Formula: see text] Th concentration to [Formula: see text] cm[Formula: see text].