Distinct fronto-striatal couplings reveal the double-faced nature of response–outcome relations in instruction-based learning

Higher species commonly learn novel behaviors by evaluating retrospectively whether actions have yielded desirable outcomes. By relying on explicit behavioral instructions, only humans can use an acquisition shortcut that prospectively specifies how to yield intended outcomes under the appropriate stimulus conditions. A recent and largely unexplored hypothesis suggests that striatal areas interact with lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) when novel behaviors are learned via explicit instruction, and that regional subspecialization exists for the integration of differential response–outcome contingencies into the current task model. Behaviorally, outcome integration during instruction-based learning has been linked to functionally distinct performance indices. This includes (1) compatibility effects, measured in a postlearning test procedure probing the encoding strength of outcome–response (O–R) associations, and (2) increasing response slowing across learning, putatively indicating active usage of O–R associations for the online control of goal-directed action. In the present fMRI study, we examined correlations between these behavioral indices and the dynamics of fronto-striatal couplings in order to mutually constrain and refine the interpretation of neural and behavioral measures in terms of separable subprocesses during outcome integration. We found that O–R encoding strength correlated with LPFC–putamen coupling, suggesting that the putamen is relevant for the formation of both S–R habits and habit-like O–R associations. By contrast, response slowing as a putative index of active usage of O–R associations correlated with LPFC–caudate coupling. This finding highlights the relevance of the caudate for the online control of goal-directed action also under instruction-based learning conditions, and in turn clarifies the functional relevance of the behavioral slowing effect. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.3758/s13415-014-0325-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.