Shikonin causes apoptosis by disrupting intracellular calcium homeostasis and mitochondrial function in human hepatoma cells

Shikonin is known to suppress proliferation and induce apoptosis in a variety of cancer cell lines. In the present study, SMMC-7721 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells were treated with shikonin (1, 2 or 4 µM) for 12–48 h. Cell morphological alterations and DNA damage were determined. Furthermore, changes in cell cycle, mitochondrial transmembrane potential, calcium homeostasis and levels of reactive oxygen species were measured. Shikonin-treated SMMC-7721 cells exhibited morphological changes and DNA damage. Shikonin inhibited cell proliferation causing cell cycle arrest at the G(0)/G(1) phase and induced apoptosis in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Shikonin-induced apoptosis was associated with activation of caspases-3, −8 and −9, elevated levels of intracellular Ca(2+) and reactive oxygen species, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and enhanced efflux of Ca(2+) and K(+). Gene expression B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)-associated X protein (Bax), p53 and caspase-3 was up-regulated, whereas Bcl-2 expression was downregulated. Shikonin caused apoptosis by inhibiting cell cycle progression, disrupting Ca(2+) homeostasis, inducing oxidative stress and triggering mitochondrial dysfunction. Activation of caspases-3, −8 and −9, K(+) efflux, and regulation of Bax, Bcl-2, p53 and caspase-3 expression are involved in the process. These results provide in-depth insight into the mechanisms of action of shikonin in the treatment of cancer.