Food Additive Titanium Dioxide and Its Fate in Commercial Foods

Titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) is one of the most extensively utilized food additives (E171) in the food industry. Along with nanotechnology development, the concern about the presence of nanostructured particles in E171 TiO(2) and commercial food products is growing. In the present study, the physicochemical properties of commercially available E171 TiO(2) particles, including particle size distribution, were investigated, followed by their cytotoxicity and intestinal transport evaluation. The fate determination and quantification of E171 TiO(2) in commercial foods were carried out based on the analytical procedure developed using simulated foods. The results demonstrated that TiO(2) is a material mainly composed of particles larger than 100 nm, but present as an agglomerated or aggregated particle in commercial foods with amounts of less than 1% (wt/wt). Titanium dioxide particles generated reactive oxygen species and inhibited long-term colony formation, but the cytotoxicity was not related to particle size distribution or particle type (food- or general-grade). All TiO(2) particles were mainly transported by microfold (M) cells, but also by intestinal tight junction. These findings will be useful for TiO(2) application in the food industry and predicting its potential toxicity.