The microenvironmental and metabolic aspects of sorafenib resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma

In most cases, sorafenib-resistant HCC cells exhibit significant mesenchymal phenotype and stemness features. In this context, tumor cells might undergo cell fate transition in response to sorafenib or other targeted drugs in the presence or absence of genetic mutations. Therefore, understanding the major characteristics of drug-resistant cells state helps to discover new treatments that overcome drug resistance. To note, little is known about the metabolic or microenvironmental aspects of the certain tumor cell states beyond the genome. This review mainly focuses on the underlying mechanisms of acquired sorafenib resistance based on CSCs and EMT models, which explain tumor heterogeneity and have been considered the major cause of secondary sorafenib resistance. In particular, it discusses how the tumor microenvironment and tumor metabolism regulate cell stemness, mesenchymal state, and sorafenib resistance through epigenetic regulations, and provides reliable targets that might have synergetic effect with sorafenib.