IL-21 enhances influenza vaccine responses in aged macaques with suppressed SIV infection

Natural aging and HIV infection are associated with chronic low-grade systemic inflammation, immune senescence, and impaired antibody responses to vaccines such as the influenza (flu) vaccine. We investigated the role of IL-21, a CD4(+) T follicular helper cell (Tfh) regulator, on flu vaccine antibody response in nonhuman primates (NHPs) in the context of age and controlled SIV mac239 infection. Three doses of the flu vaccine with or without IL-21–IgFc were administered at 3-month intervals in aged SIV(+) NHPs following virus suppression with antiretroviral therapy. IL-21–treated animals demonstrated higher day 14–postboost antibody responses, which associated with expanded CD4(+) T central memory cells and peripheral Tfh–expressing (pTfh–expressing) T cell immunoreceptor with Ig and ITIM domains (TIGIT), expanded activated memory B cells, and contracted CD11b(+) monocytes. Draining lymph node (LN) tissue from IL-21–treated animals revealed direct association between LN follicle Tfh density and frequency of circulating TIGIT(+) pTfh cells. We conclude that IL-21 enhances flu vaccine–induced antibody responses in SIV(+) aged rhesus macaques (RMs), acting as an adjuvant modulating LN germinal center activity. A strategy to supplement IL-21 in aging could be a valuable addition in the toolbox for improving vaccine responses in an aging HIV(+) population.